1. Solutions | connecting-the-dots

Feature	Polar Solvents	Non-Polar Solvents
Charge Distribution	Uneven (has $\delta^+$ and $\delta^-$ ends)	Even (no partial charges)
Dielectric Constant	High (usually > 15)	Low (usually < 5)
Solubility	Dissolves salts and sugars	Dissolves fats and oils
Common Example	Water ( $H_2O$ )	Hexane ( $C_6H_{14}$ )

Disturbance	Change	Direction of Shift	Why?
Concentration	Add $N_2$ or $H_2$	Right ( $\rightarrow$ )	To use up the extra reactant.
Concentration	Remove $NH_3$	Right ( $\rightarrow$ )	To replace the missing product.
Pressure	Increase Pressure	Right ( $\rightarrow$ )	To move toward fewer moles of gas ( $4 \rightarrow 2$ ).
Temperature	Increase Heat	Left ( $\leftarrow$ )	To absorb the extra heat (endothermic shift).

Vapor pressure of volatile liquids in the solution

The vapor pressure of volatile liquids refers to the pressure exerted by the vapor that is in dynamic equilibrium with the liquid phase at a given temperature in a closed system.

It represents how readily the molecules of the liquid escape into the gas phase (evaporate) above the liquid surface.

At any temperature, the molecules in a liquid have varying kinetic energies.

Some molecules have enough energy to overcome intermolecular forces and escape into the vapor phase.

When the rate of molecules escaping (evaporation) equals the rate of molecules returning to the liquid (condensation), the vapor pressure is established.

Volatile liquids have high vapor pressures at normal temperatures because their molecules evaporate easily. This is usually due to weaker intermolecular forces, allowing more molecules to enter the vapor phase at a given temperature.

Vapor pressure increases with temperature since more molecules gain enough energy to evaporate.

A high vapor pressure is why volatile liquids evaporate quickly and often have lower boiling points.

In summary, the vapor pressure of a volatile liquid is a measure of its tendency to evaporate; liquids with high vapor pressures are more volatile and evaporate more readily than those with low vapor pressures

Here is a list of common volatile liquids arranged in order of increasing boiling points (all boiling points at standard atmospheric pressure):

Liquid	Boiling Point (°C)
Diethyl ether	34.5
Acetone	56.2
Methanol	64.7
Chloroform	61.2
Ethanol	78.2
Benzene	80.1
Hexane	68.7
Toluene	110.6
Water (reference)	100
Acetic acid	117.9

Notes:

Gasoline (Petrol) is a mixture; its boiling range is wide, approximately 38°C to 204°C
Petroleum ether and naphtha are also mixtures with boiling ranges typically from 35°C–60°C and 20°C–180°C respectively
Diethyl ether is generally the most volatile (lowest boiling point) among commonly listed solvents.
Volatility decreases as boiling point increases—so the order above lists volatility from highest (left/top) to lowest (right/bottom) among volatile organic solvents.

This order demonstrates that diethyl ether and acetone are among the most volatile liquids, while substances like acetic acid, toluene, and water have higher boiling points and are therefore less volatile compared to the others in the list

Vapor pressure of volatile liquids in the solution

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