4. New Beginnings - Cities and States

First urbanisation

Early second millennium BCE, the Indus - Harappan - Sindhu - Saraswati civilization, the so-called "India's first urbanization", disintegrated, and the components of the Harappan urban order have also disappeared.

A whole millennium, urban life remained absent from India, only a few towns here and there in North India.

Second urbanisation

The new phase is often called India's second urbanization.

Janapada or Maha janapada

Janapada, led by a ruler or Rajya. Janapada is a Sanskrit word which means where the people, Jana, have set foot pada, that is, have settled down.

Trade networks expanded and connected them.

By the 8th or 7th century BCE, some merged together, forming bigger units known as Maha Janapadas; some smaller Janapadas continued independently.

16 Mahajanapadas

There are 16 Mahajanapadas extending from Gandhara in the northwest, Anga in the east, Ashmaka in central India, close to the Godavari river.

Magadha in today's Bihar, Kosala in today's Uttar Pradesh and Avanti in today's Madhya Pradesh are some of the most powerful Mahajanapadas.

Around Ganga plains ?

Maha janapadas are concentrated in the Ganga plains for the following reasons:

1. Growth of agriculture in the fertile Ganga plains
2. Availability of the iron ore in the mountains and hills
3. Formation of new trade networks

Capitals fortification

The capitals of Maha Janapadas were largely well-fortified cities, with a moat (a deep, wide ditch surrounding a fort or a fortified city, filled with water, usually infested with reptiles) running outside the fortification as further defense. The gateways were deliberately kept narrow to control the movement of people and goods.

Sabha or Samiti

• Each Janapada had an assembly or a council called Saba or Samiti, whose members were elders. The Raja was not expected to rule independently or arbitrarily and take advice from the assemblies, apart from ministers and administrators.

• Some Mahajanapadas were monarchies where the Raja was the ultimate authority. His position was hereditary. He collected the taxes of revenue, maintained law and order and fortification around his capital, and maintained an army.

Vajji and Malla - early democracy

• Two Maha Janapadas, Vajji or Vrijji, and the neighboring Malla had a different system.

• The Sabha or Samiti had more power and took important decisions through discussion, sometimes through vote. This included the selection of Raja.

• These were called Ganas or Sangas, and they were not monarchies and functioning as a democracy.

• Scholars have also called them early republics, one of the earliest systems in the world.

Technological developments

Iron metallurgy

• Harapan Civilization mastered copper and bronze metallurgy. In the second urbanization, there was a shift in the technology of iron metallurgy.

• Techniques of extracting and shaping iron were perfected. By the late second millennium BCE, iron tools were widespread.

• Iron had become better weapons than bronze, which is shown in the evidence of warfare between neighboring mahajanapadas.

Coins

• The first use of coins in India by growing trade exchanged across regions.

• The first Indian coins were made from silver, a soft metal into which symbols could be punched, called punch-marked coins.

• Later, coins were also made from copper, gold, and other metals.

• Maha Janapada issued its own coins, but coins from neighboring regions were used as well in the trade exchange.

Varna - Jati system

The Varna and Jati system divisions lead to inequalities when some groups acquire more wealth, power, influence than others.

The society was organized in a two-fold system:

1. Jati
2. Varna

Jaati

• specific professional occupation closely tied to their livelihood, like skill in agriculture, metallurgy, commerce, or any other craft, for that matter.

• This skill was generally transmitted from generation to generation.

• Jaati was further subdivided into sub-jaatis.

• Over time, they developed their own customs and traditions for matters concerning marriage rituals and food habits.

Varna System

The Varna system emerged from Vedic texts. There are four Varnas:

1. Brahmins, preserving and spreading knowledge and performance of rituals.
2. Kshatriyas, expected to defend the society and land and engage in warfare.
3. Vaishyas, increase the society's wealth through trade, business, or agriculture.
4. Sudras, artisans, craftsmen, workers, or servants

Casta -> Caste

• The English word "caste" comes from the Portuguese word "casta". In the 16th century CE, the Portuguese tried to make sense of the Indian society.

• Some scholars consider "caste" to refer to varnas; some consider it to refer to jatis, but some consider it to refer to both the varna and jati systems.

Jaatis bceame rigid

With time, the system became rigid, and the inequalities and discrimination towards the lower Jatis increased.