February 2025

University Education Commission, 1948 - 1949

The University Education Commission made the first recommendation for such a policy in 1948-1949, which did not find the study of three languages to be an extravagance and quoted the example of other multilingual nations such as Belgium and Switzerland.

The commission was chaired by Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, who later became the 2nd president of India.

It accepted that Modern Standard Hindi was a minority language, and had no superiority over Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, Marathi, Bengali, Punjabi, Malayalam, Assamese and Gujarati—all of which had a longer history and greater body of literature.

However, the commission foresaw Hindi eventually replacing English as the link language in a federal structure of governance.

The commission first proposed the idea that would evolve into the “three-language formula” for school education.

Mudaliar Commission, 1952

In 1952, the Mudaliar Commission was set up under the chairmanship of former Vice Chancellor of Madras University, Dr Lakshmana Swami Mudaliar. It reviewed secondary school education and recommended that students learn three languages in secondary schools:

the national language,
a regional language, and
a foreign language.

Kothari Commission, 1964

Kothari Commission was established in 1964 as an ad-hoc body under the former chairman of the University Grants Commission (UGC), Daulat Singh Kothari.

The commission, also known as the National Education Commission, in its 1966 report recommended the three-language formula (TLF)

It was aimed at promoting national integration and multilingualism in India’s education system.

Students were recommended to learn their mother tongue or regional language as their first language. The formula sought to serve three functions—accommodating group or regional identity, affirming national unity, and increasing administrative efficiency.

Opposition from TN

While the TLF was implemented nationally in 1968 under the NEP, the Congress government in Tamil Nadu (then Madras State) faced the wrath of anti-Hindi agitation spearheaded by the DMK. It led to the defeat of the Congress and the emergence of the DMK under the leadership of CN Annadurai.

2 Language formula in TN

In 1968, Tamil Nadu was the only state across the country to adopt a two-language policy, Tamil and English.

NEP, 1986

The NEP 1986, which came up with path-breaking recommendations like Operation Blackboard, also retained the three-language formula and supported the promotion of Hindi as the third and link language.

Again, the Tamil Nadu government refused to accept it and derived political benefits from the anti-Hindi sentiments that had been prevalent in the state since the 1960s.

NEP, 2020

The commission was headed by K. Kasturirangan, formed in 2019. It proposed making Hindi mandatory up to Class 8.

The NEP 2020 also retained the same three-language formula but offered much greater flexibility and more choices for non-Hindi-speaking states.

Extends to Class 9 and 10

The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2023, revised in line with NEP 2020, extends the “three-language formula” to Classes 9 and 10, ensuring that at least two of the three languages studied are native to India.

Extends to Class 11 and 12

Additionally, it proposes that students in Classes 11 and 12 must study two languages, with one of them being of Indian origin.

Hindi - not compulsory

It does not propose Hindi to be made compulsory, even in Hindi-speaking states. Without imposing any language on any state, it leaves the choice to the states, regions and students, as long as at least two of the three languages are native to India.

English - tenure only 15 years?

Ironically, English has become a ‘native’ language of India by default. While the Constitution provides that Hindi is the official language of the Union, English was originally meant to continue for only 15 years from 1950.

However, the Official Languages Act 1963 allows English to continue as an official language, in addition to Hindi, for all official purposes of the Union without any time limit.

Languages Hindi swallowed

”Ever wondered how many Indian languages Hindi has swallowed?” it began. And it went on to list these: Bhojpuri, Maithili, Garhwali, and Kumaoni, among others. Stalin listed 19 languages, saying these and “many more are now gasping for survival”.

UP and Bihar - not hindi heartlands

Uttar Pradesh and Bihar were never just “Hindi heartlands”. Their real languages are now relics of the past.

Official languages Act, 1967

In 1967, Indira Gandhi’s government amended the Official Languages Act to guarantee the virtually indefinite use of Hindi and English as national languages following a bloody anti-Hindi agitation in Madras (as it then was) in 1965. Print

March 2025

Foreign languages at secondary level

NEP 2020 also recommends study of foreign languages at the secondary level.

Sanskrit - 3rd language

Most states offer Hindi or Sanskrit as the third language, along with some other language options, while the region’s mother tongue and English serve as the first and second languages, depending on the medium of instruction.

Hindi-speaking students generally find Sanskrit easier to learn

In many Hindi-speaking states, including Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Delhi, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttarakhand, the majority of schools, particularly government or aided schools, offer Sanskrit as the third language alongside Hindi and English as the first and second languages.

While regional languages such as Urdu, Punjabi and Bengali are also available as options for the third language, they are typically offered in a limited number of schools based on local demand.

Demand for European languages

there is a growing demand for international languages like French, German, and Spanish in both Hindi and non-Hindi speaking states.

Every year, more students opt for Spanish and French than for Sanskrit.

No state fully implemented NEP 2020

Krishna Kumar, an educationist and former director of National Council of Educational Research and Training, argued that no state has fully implemented the “three-language formula” as envisioned.

“Which Hindi-speaking state offers a regional language as a third language, as proposed by the Kothari Commission in 1966?” he asked. “How can we claim they are truly implementing the formula?”

Quality of teaching under ?

While states have been teaching English for years, can students from government schools comfortably read a short story or novel?

The standard of teaching the mother tongue is equally poor.

Shortage of qualified teachers

the shortage of qualified teachers in various Indian languages makes it difficult to offer a wide range of language options.

Not offering South Indian languages

“North Indian states never adopted South Indian languages as a third language. In fact, even some north Indian languages, like Punjabi and Kashmiri, were not offered as second or third languages”

Mother tongue - mandatory

Maharashtra’s 2020 law requires Marathi to be taught up to Class 10.

Last month, Telangana mandated Telugu as a compulsory subject for CBSE, ICSE and IB board schools, starting with Class 9 in 2025-26.

Karnataka’s Kannada Language Learning Act of 2015 mandates Kannada in all schools from Class 1 to 10

West Bengal’s 2023 education policy emphasises teaching three languages, with Bengali as the mother tongue, from Classes 5 to 8. Print

July 2025

English is the real official language in India

The British Raj followed a transparent and practical language policy.
English was the language of governance—and only for the rulers, to serve their administrative needs.
The large spheres of education and culture were left autonomous, with, by and large, no government interference.
Subject experts in each Indian language designed curricula and study materials for their regions.
The British never created or imposed any central ‘education policy’ or even uniform syllabi or textbooks.
Critics endlessly cite Macaulay’s 1835 Minute, yet forget it was just a note of dissent, not a formal policy.
During the colonial era, efforts to make Hindi a national working language were made mostly by non-Hindi leaders and intellectuals, such as MK Gandhi, C Rajagopalachari, KM Munshi, Rabindranath Tagore, and others.
- The Official Language Acts and Rules of 1963 and 1976 and the subsequent amendments in 1986, 2007, and 2011. Print